the level of poverty at which an individual is struggling to meet basic needs, such as adequate nutrition and shelter

a status you achieve at some point after birth that is understood as a position you have more control over

the percentage of people aged 15 and above who can read and write a simple sentence

the policies and practices offering equal opportunity to some racial-ethnic minorities and women in employment and education intended to help compensate for historical discrimination

people who do not identify with a gender at all

arenas in which we interact and in which the socialization process happens (e.g., schools, neighborhood, families, etc.)

a collection of people who are in the same place at the same time but who otherwise do not necessarily interact or have a common identity

a form of society which relies on plow and wheel technologies to increase food production

a person that combines aspects of both feminine and masculine characteristics

a form of contact involving a legal process that transfers territory, typically in the form of a treaty, between groups

or normlessness, which results from situations, such as periods of rapid social change, when social norms are weak and unclear or social ties are weak

behavior that is not conducive to societal expectations, especially those that are aggressive or disruptive

material objects that constitute a society’s material culture

a status that someone is born with and has little control over

a pattern of intergroup relations in which the boundary lines between groups is diminished and groups become increasingly similar to one another

a social-psychological theory of prejudice in which it is thought that individuals with authoritarian-type personalities are more prone to prejudice

political system in which an individual or a group of individuals holds power, restricts or prohibits popular participation in governance, and represses dissent

power that is approved by a society

a form of racism based on the belief that a minority group is biologically inferior to a dominant group

preference for sexual relationships with both individuals of the opposite sex and of one’s own sex

the social structure of society is held responsible for creating many social problems

when harm is inflicted by one person to another person, the harmed person is held responsible for the harm done to them

the ruling class, or the group who owns the means of production

an economic system in which there is private ownership of the means of production, the pursuit of profit, competition for profit, and the lack of government intervention in the market (which determines prices)

a system of social stratification where people are born into unequal groups based on their parents’ status and remain in these groups throughout their lives

a collection of individuals who have at least one attribute in common but otherwise do not necessarily interact

power based on an individual’s extraordinary personal qualities

physical, psychological, or sexual mistreatment of a child, which can include harming a child through neglect

the number of children who die before age 5 per 1,000 live births

large, bureaucratically organized religious organization that is closely integrated into the larger society

armed conflict between factions within the same nation

the awareness of one’s shared place in society within a class structure where one perceives common life chances

a system of social stratification associated with industrial and post-industrial societies in which individuals can move up or down in rank

a society where stratification is non-existent

a system of social stratification where individuals have no opportunity to change position

power that is not considered to be legitimately exercised, and involves the use of force or threats

a couple that lives in a romantic relationship

the idea that men and women should be compensated the same for work that has equivalent skill level and responsibilities

a theoretical perspective that looks at the way inequalities contribute to social differences and perpetuate differences in power while creating social order

education promotes social inequality through the use of tracking, standardized testing and the hidden curriculum

religion reinforces and promotes social inequality by convincing lower status groups to accept the status quo

social stratification is neither necessary nor inevitable and results from the lack of opportunity and/or from discrimination associated with the exploitation of the masses by the elite

individuals who accept both the goals of society and the means to achieve those goals

a form of contact that occurs when conflict arises between formerly separated groups, resulting in one group conquering and coming to dominate the other

an interactionist theory on prejudice that argues prejudice arises in societies where institutional segregation and social inequality are paired

research subjects in an experiment who are not exposed to the variable being studied

a nonrandom sample that is available quickly and inexpensive to use

a form of crime in which acts of violence or property offenses are committed

crimes which are committed by major corporations

a group whose values, beliefs and norms directly oppose those of the larger culture and even reject it

a society in which eligibility for work is dependent upon the attainment of a degree or diploma

a form of deviance where an individual violates a law

the number of live births for every 1,000 people in a population in a given year

the number of deaths for every 1,000 people in a population in a given year

a small religious organization that is greatly at odds with the norms and values of the larger society

the process of ideas, norms and values moving across cultural borders

differences in material and nonmaterial culture between societies or even subcultures

when people’s behavior does not reflect the regular usage of the latest technologies or the slower development or change in nonmaterial culture when compared to advancements in material culture

when cultures that were previously distinct become less so due to the cultural diffusion

a form of racism based on the belief the position of a racial-ethnic minority group within the system of stratification is due to their cultural traits

the belief that we should not judge any culture as superior or inferior to another culture

the symbols, language, norms, beliefs, values and material objects that are part of a society

a theory in which it is claimed the poor have beliefs and values that differ from the non-poor, and it is these beliefs and values that contribute to their poverty

obligatory behaviors of a group that are frequently repeated and contribute to the survival and/or growth of the group

a form segregation that occurs "by fact" but is not mandated by law

segregation mandated by law

looking beyond the on-the-surface understandings of social reality and recognizing the value of alternative sociological understandings

a ceremony, ritual or encounter in which a total institution’s resident is humiliated, often in front of the institution’s other residents or officials

a political system in which citizens govern themselves either directly or through their elected representatives

societies that combine the elements of both capitalism and socialism are called social democracies, while their combination of capitalism and socialism is called democratic socialism

a theory on population growth that demonstrates trends in birth and death rates over time, showing a correlation between population growth and form of society, and which predicts that with industrialization, population growth naturally slows and eventually declines

the study of the changes in the size and composition of population

a large, bureaucratic religious organization that is closely integrated into the larger society but is not a formal part of the state

a theory which explains global stratification as rooted in colonization and exploitation of the resources and people of colonized countries to the benefit of colonizing countries, resulting in the dependency of low-income nations on high-income nations

the variable that is affected by the independent variable

behavior that violates social norms and arouses negative social reactions

subcultural groups that promote deviant behavior, which may arise as a result of poverty and other community conditions

an interactionist theory which states deviance is learned by interacting with friends and family members who are deviant in their actions or who perceive deviance as acceptable

a conflict theory which states people with power use the legal system to secure their position at the top of society and to keep the powerless at the bottom, and that low income and minority groups are more likely, because of their lower status, to be arrested, convicted and imprisoned

a theory which states different social classes have distinct patterns of crime due to differential access to institutionalized means

a behavior pattern associated with group size where people are less likely to act if they think others will

a form of government in which people make their own decisions about the policies and distribution of resources that affect them directly

when something completely new is observed or found

the arbitrary denial of rights, privileges, and opportunities to members of a minority group

a specialization of work that was a consequence of industrialization

migration that occurs within a country’s borders

violence between spouses and others with intimate relationships

the norms, language, beliefs and values adhered to by the most powerful group in a society

the norms and values of the dominant group within a society

the idea, introduced by Goffman, that we can understand social interaction as if it were a theatrical performance

deviance is functional for society because it clarifies norms, increases conformity, strengthens social bonds and can lead to positive social change

a two-person group

large, bureaucratic religious organization that is a formal part of the state and has most or all of a state’s citizens as its members

the gap between the richest and poorest segments of society

social institution that organizes the production, distribution, and consumption of a society’s goods and services

a social institution through which a society teaches its members the skills, knowledge, norms, and values they need to learn to become good, productive members of their society

families in which fathers and mothers share authority equally

the number of people moving out of a region for every 1,000 people in the region

marriage which occurs within one’s own social category or social group

occurs when individuals and families move into and out of poverty within a given year or two, often more than once

theory of social change in which it is argued that changes within one social institution cause changes in other social institutions until order is restored

a system of social stratification characterized by control of land by a small elite group and peasants work the land to the benefit of the landowners

a theory of prejudice which holds that ethnic prejudice and conflict increase when two or more ethnic groups find themselves competing for jobs, housing, and other goals

a group with a set of shared social, cultural, and historical experiences; with relatively distinctive beliefs, values, and behaviors; and with some sense of identity of belonging to the group

the shared social, cultural, and historical experiences, stemming from common national or regional backgrounds, that make groups different from one another

the tendency to judge another culture by the standards of our own and to believe that our own culture is indeed superior to another culture

marriage which occurs across social categories or social groups

research subjects in an experiment who are exposed to the variable being studied

research conducted under controlled conditions used to demonstrate or refute a hypothesis

a pattern of intergroup relations in which members of a dominant group expel members of a minority group from society

consist of parents, their children, and other relatives

occurs when workers have adopted the ideology of the elite and are not aware of their true position in society

a group of two or more people who are related by blood, marriage, adoption, or a mutual commitment and who care for one another

refers to the cultural expectations we have of girls and women

refers to the belief that women and men should have equal opportunities in economic, political, and social life

theoretical perspective that analyzes the inequalities and power dynamics between men and women with the intention of improving women’s lives

inequality against women, antiquated views about relations between the sexes and gender socialization result in violence against women and gender differences in crime rates

a phenomenon whereby women experience poverty at higher rates in comparison to men

the number of live births

standards of behavior that regulate daily activity but that are considered less important than mores

a form of society in with food is acquired by foraging, scavenging and hunting

often referred to as schooling, and as this term implies, it occurs in schools under teachers, principals and other specially trained professionals

includes laws and mores which are standards of behavior considered the most important in any society

the means used to control behavior that violates formal norms

a group of two or more people who are mutually committed to one another and who care for one another

education serves functions for society, including socialization, social integration, social placement and social and cultural innovation

religion serves functions for society, including giving meaning and purpose to life, reinforcing social unity and stability, serving as an agent of social control, promoting physical and psychological well-being and motivating people to work for social change

the theory that states stratification is necessary and inevitable in order to induce people with special knowledge and abilities to enter into the most vital occupations

the theoretical perspective that views society as a system of interconnected parts that function together to contribute to the stability of the whole society

gender is a social concept and refers to the social and cultural differences a society assigns to feminine and masculine characteristics based on biological sex

is when there are only two recognized genders in society

is the belief about yourself as male or female

refers to a society’s expectations of people’s behavior and attitudes based on whether they identify as females or males

not limited to two gender possibilities

the number of live births per 1,000 women aged 15-44

general statements regarding trends among various dimensions of social life

a pattern of intergroup relations in which members of a dominant group kills members of a minority group en masse

movements of the hands, arms, or other parts of the body that are meant to convey certain ideas or emotions

a measure used by the World Bank to determine the degree of economic inequality that exists in a nation

women may be promoted in a job only to find they reach an invisible barrier beyond which they cannot get promoted, or they may not get promoted in the first place

men rise through the ranks easily without many hoops to jump through

products assembled over the course of several international transactions

internationally integrated economic links that connect workers and corporations for the purpose of manufacturing and marketing

the unequal distribution of wealth, power, prestige, resources, and influence among the world’s nations

the process of integrating governments, cultures, and financial markets through international trade into a single world market

the group of persons who direct the political affairs of a state, but it can also mean the type of rule by which a state is run — a political system

a  theory on prejudice that finds prejudice and hostility arises from competition over jobs and other resources and from disagreement over various political issues

a behavior pattern when people go along with the desires and views of a group against their better judgments

preference for sexual relationships with individuals of the opposite sex

what conflict theorists call part of the schooling process that gets children to accept, without questioning, the cultural values of the society in which the schools are found

post-industrial nations, typically found in Western Europe, North America and East Asia, with high levels of economic, political and cultural power at the global level and high use of the world’s natural resources.

when people who are similar in social characteristics get married

preference for sexual relationships with individuals of one’s own sex

a form of society in which members use rudimentary hand tools to grow a few specific crops in one location until the soil nutrients are depleted

people who live together in a dwelling unit, whether or not they are related by blood, marriage, or adoption

a composite measure of a nation’s income, health and education

the high degree of residential segregation experienced by African Americans

a statement of the relationship between two variables concerning the units of analysis the researcher is studying

a period of uncertainty about one’s identity, which can happen during transitional periods of socialization

a systematic body of ideas and beliefs

the movement of people into a new region or nation

individual’s routine attempts to convey a positive impression of themselves to the people with whom they interact

groups that we feel loyal to and take pride in belonging to

very strict social norm that prohibits sex between certain relatives

the variable that affects the dependent variable

discrimination that individuals practice in their daily lives against other individuals or small groups

a form of society which uses machines and factories as the primary mode of production

may occur almost anywhere, but for young children it has traditionally occurred primarily in the home, with their parents as their instructors

includes folkways and customs which are standards of behavior that are considered less important but still influence how we behave

the means used to control behavior that violates informal norms

individuals who accept the goals of society but use deviant means to achieve those goals

discrimination that pervades the practices of whole institutions, such as housing, medical care, law enforcement, employment, and education

violence committed by private citizens against their own government or against businesses and institutions

social mobility from one generation to the next within the same family

patterns of relationships between different groups of people

migration that occurs across national borders

armed conflict between nations

a marriage between people of different races

violence committed by a current or former spouse or intimate partner

social mobility of an individual within their own lifetime

a marriage between people of the same race or ethnicity

when something new is created from things that already exist

groups forced to move from one society to a new society

the theory that large organizations inevitably develop an oligarchy, or the undemocratic rule of many people by just a few people

the theory that states deviance results from being labeled a deviant and treated as such

a capitalist economic system in which there is absolutely no government intervention (laissez-faire “hands off” in French)

a set of symbols used for communication and which makes society possible

standards of behavior considered the most important in any society which are encoded by political entities and enforced by agents of the state, such as the police and the courts

believes that the equality of women can be achieved within our existing society by passing laws and reforming social, economic, and political institutions

our chances (whether we have a good chance or little chance) of being healthy, wealthy, and well educated and, more generally, of living a good, happy life

an important decision which one makes about their life according to their interests, opinions, and actions

the stages of life (e.g., childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age)

the average number of years that a nation’s citizens can be expected to live

a process of socialization described by Cooley through which we imagine how we appear to others and then imagine how they think of us

least industrialized nations which primarily subsist on agricultural production, characterized by high levels of poverty and economic and political marginalization

the social group with the lowest socioeconomic status in society who are marginalized and deprived

focuses on the big picture, which usually means such things as social institutions, and social, political and economic change

the advantage that males automatically have in a patriarchal society, whether or not they realize they have these advantages

a dietary deficiency where an individual lacks adequate nutrition

a theory by Thomas Malthus on population growth that promotes the idea that population growth increases exponentially and increase in food production occurs arithmetically, resulting in a growing gap between the size of the population and the ability to produce enough food to feed this population, resulting in mass starvation and conflict over increasingly scarce resources

a group’s approved mating arrangements

refers to the expectations we have of boys and men

a status that is so important that it overrides or determines other statuses you may hold

all of society’s physical objects

the number of women who die during childbirth for every 100,000 live births

families in which mothers are the family’s major authority figure

families in which children are thought to be related only to their mother’s relatives, and wealth is passed down only to daughters

the form of solidarity that develops when a society has little division of labor and a strong emphasis on group commitment leaving little room for deviance from group norms and beliefs

the study of social interaction, action, and the construction of meaning in small groups

the social group positioned between the upper and working classes who typically work in white-collar occupations and who have a moderate standard of living

industrial nations with a mid-level of economic development found typically in Latin America and the Caribbean, Northern and Southern Africa, Eastern Europe and parts of Asia

the movement of people into and out of specific regions

any group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society in which they live for differential and unequal treatment and who regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination

a theory which explains global stratification resulting from the degree to which a country has adopted “modern” cultural values and practices, along with new technologies

a political system in which power resides in a single family that rules from one generation to the next generation

a marriage in which only two spouses exist

the total (or almost) control of the supply or trade of a good or service

religious belief in only one god

standards of behavior considered the most important in any society, typically reflected in moral standards

the number of deaths

emphasizes that women of color are oppressed not only because of their gender but also because of their race and class

a composite measure accounting for social well-being used by the United Nations Development Programme to measure poverty

a theory on societal transformation that recognizes that while societies share similar social and cultural features, no environment and no evolutionary path will be the same

the difference between the crude birth rate and the crude death rate

the rate of immigration minus the rate of emigration

is when a person does not identify with either gender

the cognitive and behavioral parts of culture, including symbols, values, and beliefs, and verbal and nonverbal communication

a research method in which the the researcher observes a group they are studying but does not participate in the group

a sample in which members of the population do not have the same chance of being included in the study

ways of communicating that do not involve talking

cultural standards and expectations for behavior

a married couple and their young children living by themselves under one roof

a system of social stratification where individuals may change position

the form of solidarity that develops when a society relies on a large, complex and hierarchical division of labor, where cultural diversity and individualism are common

groups that we are not in and that we would describe as “they”

a research method in which the the researcher holds two status, as researcher studying people in the research setting and as a participant in the group that is under study

a form of society in which members herd a specific species of domesticated animal for the purpose of milk and meat as food sources

families in which fathers are the major authority figure in the family

male dominated society

families in which children are thought to be related only to their father’s relatives, and wealth is passed down only to sons

strong influence by peers in a group to affect the behavior of a member

refer to a problem affecting individuals that the affected individual, as well as other members of society, typically blame on the individual’s own failings

a pattern of intergroup relations in which the division between groups are maintained, sometimes in equal and sometimes in unequal ways

functionalist theory that views political power in the United States and other democracies as dispersed among several “veto groups” that compete in the political process for resources and influence

organizations formed by special-interest groups to raise and spend money on behalf of political campaigns and various political issues

a set of views, usually centered on social and economic issues, that guides your political thinking

an organization that supports particular political positions and tries to elect candidates to office to represent those positions

the type of rule by which a state is run

the distribution and exercise of power within a society

the political institution through which power is distributed and exercised

one woman who is married to more than one man at the same time

the marriage of one person to two or more people at a time

one man who is married to more than one woman at the same time

religious belief in two or more gods

a graphic representation of the age and sex structure of a given society

the portrayal of written or visual sexual material used to cause sexual excitement

a form of society which relies on service jobs and information technology

a measure of official poverty calculated using data on food expenses and which is adjusted for family size

the ability to have one’s will carried out despite the resistance of others

a conflict theory proposed by Mills which states concentrated societal power is composed of government, big business, and the military, which together constitute a ruling class that controls society and works for its own interests, not for the interests of the citizenry

a set of negative attitudes, beliefs, and judgments about groups, and about individual members of those groups

the respect of regard given to an individual

usually small and is characterized by extensive interaction and strong emotional ties that endure over time

part of the economy that takes and uses raw materials directly from the natural environment

the genetically determined sex characteristics one is born with

beliefs about things that are associated with daily life, and have no religious connotation

the working class, or the group who does not own the means of production and instead is oppressed and exploited by the bourgeoisie

policies aimed at encouraging women to have more children

social and spatial nearness; the variable that mostly drives homogamy

when the source of a social problem affecting many individuals lies in the social structure and culture of a society

non-numerical data that is analyzed for what people say and do

survey data that is collected numerically

a nonrandom sample where the researcher tries to ensure that the makeup of the sample resembles one or more characteristics of the population as closely as possible

a category of people who share certain physical characteristics, such as skin color, facial features and stature

a form of caste system in which an individual’s race determines their position in the stratification system

the belief that certain racial or ethnic groups are biologically or culturally inferior to one’s own

believes that patriarchy lies at the root of women’s oppression and that women are oppressed even in non-capitalist societies

a sample that gives everyone in the population an equal chance of being in the study

being forced to have sex

power based on written rules, such as laws

individuals who reject both the goals of society and the means to achieve those goals, and who work actively to bring about a new society with a new value system

the practice of rejecting the mortgage applications of racial-ethnic minorities who wish to live in certain neighborhoods primarily inhabited by members of the same group

a group that sets a standard for guiding our own behavior and attitudes

a type of social movement that seeks limited, though still significant changes in some aspect of a nation’s political, economic or social systems

whether a behavior is considered deviant depends on the circumstance in which the behavior occurs and not on the behavior itself

a set of beliefs and practices regarding sacred things that help a society understand the meaning and purpose of life

how often people practice rituals associated with religion (e.g., pray, go to service, etc.)

a term that can mean actual membership in a church or synagogue, or just a stated identification with a particular religion whether or not someone actually belongs to a local house of worship

a doctrine combining religious and political beliefs which emphasizes traditional beliefs and practices

another term for religious affiliation

the level of fertility at which a population exactly replaces itself from one generation to the next

people elect officials to represent them in legislative votes on matters affecting the population

a process in which people learn new values and norms in conjunction with a change in status

percentage of all people in the sample who agree to be interviewed

agreements among property owners that stipulated they would not sell or rent their properties of African Americans

individuals who reject both the goals of society and the means to achieve those goals, and who withdraw from society

events that mark an individual’s transition from one status to another

individuals who reject the goals of society but continue to conform to the norms of society, regardless.

the behaviors expected of someone holding a certain status

occurs when the roles associated with two or more of our statuses conflict with each other

theory by Mead which argues when children pretend to be other people in their play they learn what these other people expect of them

occurs when the role expectations of one status cause the individual to strain in an effort to meet all the expectations

the transformation of charismatic authority into tradition authority or rational legal authority

is composed of the richest 0.5% to 1% of the population, who control more than half the nation’s wealth, sit on the boards of directors just mentioned, and are members of the same social clubs and other voluntary organizations

beliefs about things that are supernatural and awe-inspiring

a subset of the population of people in whom the researcher is interested

a theory which suggests that people cannot easily understand concepts and objects unless their language contains words for these items

a social-psychological theory of prejudice in which it is thought that people who are frustrated by their life circumstances will blame their troubles on low status groups

when the government gives parents certificates based on public funding that they can use as tuition at private or parochial (religious) schools

a process that involves several research steps, including observation, hypothesis testing, analysis of data, and drawing conclusions

a research method that involves the analysis of existing data

larger, more impersonal and often exist for a relatively short time to achieve a specific purpose

transforms raw materials into finished products and is essentially the manufacturing industry

sex differences that develop later in life during puberty

relatively small religious organization that has splintered off from another religion, that is not closely integrated into the larger society and that often conflicts with at least some of its norms and values

the weakening importance of religion in a society, as it plays less of a role in people’s lives, as they are less guided in their daily behavior by religious beliefs

a pattern of intergroup relations in which the dominant group structures society in such a way as to limit contact between themselves and a minority group

one’s identity, self-concept and self-image

to move from one intimate relationship to another in a sequence

is the biological concept that describes people we consider females and males

refers to a belief in traditional gender role stereotypes and in the inherent inequality between men and women

unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, or physical conduct of a sexual nature used as a condition of employment or promotion or that interferes with an individual’s job performance and creates an intimidating or hostile environment

refers to a person’s preference for sexual relationships with individuals of the other sex (heterosexuality), one’s own sex (homosexuality), or both sexes (bisexuality)

a system of social stratification characterized by the ownership of people

important scientific discoveries and great works of art, poetry, and prose

occurs when norms and values of a culture and society change over time

how individuals who interact help construct the reality of the situation in which they interact

the ways in which a society tries to prevent and sanction behavior that violates norms

deviance results from weak bonds to conventional social institutions, such as families and schools

weakened social bonds and social institutions that make it difficult to socialize children properly and to monitor suspicious behavior

a theory on deviance which states that community characteristics, such as high rates of poverty, dilapidation, population density and population turnover, result in higher rates of deviance

interaction between humans in an immediate physical setting

two or more people who regularly interact on the basis of mutual expectations and who share a common identity

the hierarchical ranking of people or groups within a society, where some people or groups have greater access to goods and resources than others

the patterns of beliefs, behaviors and organized means by which a society meets its basic needs

teaching students a common set of beliefs and values

the way in which people act with other people and react to how other people are acting

an symbolic interaction theory of prejudice in which it is argued that prejudice is the result of socialization from parents, peers, and news media and other various aspects of their culture

the social and physical traits of an individual, such as gender, race, social class and religion, deemed to be important by their society

the movement of an individual or group up or down in position within a stratification system

an organized effort by a large number of people to bring about or impede social, political, economic or cultural change

the totality of relationships that link us to other people and groups and through them to still other people and groups

the placement students by teachers and other school officials either as bright and motivated or as less bright and even educationally challenged

a community feeling and group commitment that serves to hold society together

a position that someone occupies in society

a system of ranking in which groups of people have differential access to wealth, power and prestige

the social patterns through which a society is organized

an economic system in which the means of production are publicly owned, it is not motivated by profit, and the government (or a central planning committee) sets prices

blames capitalism for women’s inequality and says that true gender equality can result only if fundamental changes in social institutions, and even a socialist revolution, are achieved

the process by which we learn our culture

a group of people who live within a defined territory and who share a culture

a field of study in sociology in which scholars say that several important human behaviors and emotions, such as competition, aggression, and altruism, stem from our biological makeup

the social standing of an individual or family in relation to others based on measures such as education, income and/or occupation

the ability to see societal patterns that influence individual and group life

the view that our social backgrounds influence our attitudes, behavior, life choices and life chances

the scientific study of human behavior and social organization within society

a relationship between an independent variable and dependent variable when a third variable accounts for the relationship

political unit within which power and authority reside

violence by a government that is meant to frighten and or repress its own citizens

all the positions an individual occupies

objects that signify a particular status

simplified, mistaken generalizations about people because of their race and/or ethnicity, which are not tested against reality and which are learned second-hand

deviance results for the gap between the goals of a society and the ability of individuals to achieves those goals

social mobility of a group of people up or down the social class ladder in response to changes within society

a group that shares the central values, beliefs and norms of the larger culture but still retains certain values, beliefs and norms that make it distinct from the larger culture

a research method involving the collection of data from questionnaires

social interaction in schools affects the development of gender roles and teachers’ expectations of students’ intellectual abilities affect how much pupils learn

beliefs and practices are sacred only when people regard them as such, and once thy are regarded as such, beliefs and practices take on special significance and give meaning to people’s lives

the theory that states stratification affect’s people’s beliefs, lifestyles, daily interactions and conceptions of themselves

a microsociological perspective that focuses on the interaction of individuals and on how they interpret their interaction according to the meaning things have for them

things that stand for something else and that often evoke various reactions and emotions

use of unexpected violence to intimidate or coerce people in the pursuit of political or social objectives

part of the economy that provides services rather than products

the number of children an average woman is expected to have in her lifetime

organizations that have total control over the lives of the people who live in them (e.g., prison, boot camps, convents, etc.)

political systems that include all the features of authoritarianism but are even more repressive as they try to regulate and control all aspects of citizens’ lives and fortunes

power that is rooted in tradition and custom

a group of two or more people who are related by blood, marriage or adoption

violence committed by the citizens of one nation against targets in another nation

a three-person group

a condition faced by women of color due to inequality associated with gender, race, and social class, which is more frequently placed them near the bottom of the socioeconomic ladder

family incomes below double the poverty line

biases individuals exhibit that are beyond their awareness and based on learned stereotypes that are unintentionally held

a theory on societal transformation that theorizes that societies evolve in the same manner as organisms, moving from an unorganized animalistic state to organized civilizations

the type of entity a researcher is studying

the social group with the highest socioeconomic status in society who monopolize the majority of societal resources

the rise and growth of cities

judgments of what is good or bad, desirable or undesirable

any feature or factor that may differ among the units of analysis that a researcher is studying, such as age, gender, social class, race-ethnicity, attitudes or behaviors.

the up or down change in position of an individual or group within a system of social stratification

illegal behavior in which people engages and in which there are no unwilling victims

violence committed by private citizens against other private citizens

individuals or group voluntarily move from one society to a new society

a lack of faith that voting makes any difference and that government can be helpful (often called political alienation)

when two or more factions engage in armed conflict

the total value of an individual or family, including income, stocks and bonds, real estate, and other assets

a form of crime committed as part of one’s occupation

the social group positioned between the middle and lower classes who typically work blue-collar occupations and who are economically vulnerable

an illogical fear and even hatred of foreigners and foreign goods

a neo-Malthusian theory that espoused the idea that population growth will outstrip food resources as well as non-renewable resources, prompting the call for reduction in fertility